10/06/2011
The name Napoleon Bonaparte evokes images of grand battles, strategic genius, and a sprawling empire that reshaped Europe. Yet, the final act of this extraordinary life was played out not on a battlefield, but on a remote, windswewept island in the South Atlantic: St. Helena. His exile there, a period marked by solitude and indignity, culminated in a death shrouded in mystery, sparking centuries of debate about its true cause. This article delves into Napoleon's final years, his poignant last words, and the medical controversies that continue to intrigue historians and scientists alike.
The Desolate Exile on St. Helena
Following his crushing defeat at Waterloo in June 1815 and his subsequent second abdication, Napoleon sought passage to America. However, he was intercepted by the British, who deemed him too dangerous to remain free and exiled him to St. Helena. Arriving on 15 October 1815, after a two-month sea voyage, he was confined to Longwood House, a damp, farmhouse-like dwelling situated on a plateau. This isolated rock, a natural fortress in the vast South Atlantic, became his prison.
Life at Longwood House was far from the imperial grandeur Napoleon had known. It was a period synonymous with profound solitude and discomfort. He was under constant surveillance by British soldiers, commanded by Governor Hudson Lowe, a man who held little esteem for the Emperor. Lowe, notorious for his petty harassments, refused to address Napoleon as 'Emperor' or even 'General', insisting instead on 'General Bonaparte'. Napoleon's weapons were confiscated, his movements severely restricted, and his correspondence censored. Daily indignities were commonplace, designed to break the spirit of the once-mighty leader.
During the initial years of his exile, Napoleon dedicated himself to dictating his memoirs to his companions in misfortune. This monumental task allowed him to shape his legacy, offering his perspective on the tumultuous events he had commanded. However, in his latter years, his health deteriorated, and his activity waned significantly. He became increasingly reclusive, venturing out less and working little, though his passion for reading remained undimmed.
The Emperor's Final Days
Napoleon's health began to decline noticeably, marked by severe pains in the right side of his abdomen. Despite these distressing symptoms, his physician, François Antommarchi, dismissed them, attributing them to simple constipation. Governor Hudson Lowe, ever sceptical of Napoleon's ailments, even suggested it was merely a "diplomatic illness" designed to garner sympathy.
Yet, Napoleon himself harboured a grim premonition. He believed he was afflicted with the same malady that had claimed his father, Charles Bonaparte: stomach cancer. On 15 March 1821, he felt particularly unwell after drinking water from his usual source, a sign that his condition was worsening. By 12 April, he was largely confined to his bed, consumed by an illness that doctors struggled to diagnose.
As his health continued its inexorable decline, Napoleon ate very little, sensing the onset of decrepitude and the imminent approach of death. He began to set his affairs in order, dictating his will. Until the very end, his memory remained prodigious; he forgot none of the individuals to whom he felt indebted. In a poignant reflection on his military past, he spoke of rejoining his fallen comrades:
"I am going to rejoin my brave companions in the Elysian Fields. Yes, Kléber, Desaix, Bessières, Duroc, Ney, Murat, Masséna, Berthier will come to greet me and speak with me of what we have done together… Seeing me, they will rekindle with enthusiasm and glory, and we will speak of our wars and our glory with the Scipios, the Hannibals, with Caesar and Frederick."
By 1 May, all illusions about Napoleon's condition had vanished; it was clear the end was near. On 3 May, his situation appeared utterly desperate. A slight improvement was noted on 4 May, when he even took some refreshments. However, around 3 AM on 5 May, the Emperor lost consciousness. His pulse was barely perceptible, and his body grew cold.
Napoleon's Last Words
Around 7 AM on 5 May 1821, it is reported that Napoleon uttered his last words: two distinct, powerful nouns: "tête" (head) and "armée" (army). These final declarations, if accurately recorded, encapsulate the essence of his being – the intellect and the military might that defined his monumental life. At 5:49 PM that same day, Napoleon breathed his last, and the legend passed into history. Those present noted that in death, the Emperor appeared to be sleeping, his face calm and rested, seemingly rejuvenated by the weight he had lost.
The Enduring Controversy: What Killed Napoleon?
Napoleon I's death on 5 May 1821, at the age of 51, officially attributed to stomach cancer resulting from an aggravated ulcer, has been the subject of intense scrutiny and debate for nearly two centuries. The morning after his death, Governor Hudson Lowe himself, along with his staff and the French commissioner, the Marquis de Montchenu, officially confirmed the death of "General Bonaparte". Lowe reportedly stated, "Well, gentlemen, he was England's greatest enemy and mine too; but I forgive him everything. At the death of such a great man, one should feel only deep sorrow and profound regrets."
The Official Diagnosis: Stomach Cancer or Ulcer?
The autopsy, conducted on 6 May 1821 by François Antommarchi, assisted by seven British physicians, was performed at Napoleon's own request. He hoped the findings would benefit his son, should he suffer from a similar ailment. Napoleon was convinced he would die from the same disease that had claimed his father. The body was dressed in his Imperial Guard Chasseurs uniform, adorned with his orders, and draped in the blue, silver-embroidered cloak he wore at Marengo. His heart and stomach were removed and preserved in spirit of wine.
The autopsy reports, however, proved contentious. Antommarchi and five English doctors noted a chronic perforated gastric ulcer, possibly evolving towards cancer, and pulmonary lesions. A later report in 1823 by Dr. Walter Henry confirmed an aggravated ulcer with "masses of cancerous ulcerations or scirrhus." However, the large perforated gastric ulcer, sealed by the left lobe of the liver, was unlikely to have been the immediate cause of death, suggesting an older fibrosis. Instead, witnesses described a gastric lining in poor condition almost entirely, with "masses of ulcerations." This condition, later described as "gastrorrhagia" (chronic microscopic bleeding), leads to iron deficiency, anaemia, and eventually death by exsanguination.
A 2007 study in Nature Clinical Practice Gastroenterology and Hepatology suggested a tumoral gastric lesion consistent with stomach cancer, based on Antommarchi's second autopsy report published in 1825. This report, however, has been widely discredited as a partial plagiarism and a falsification, lacking mention of crucial details like enlarged lymph nodes or pulmonary tuberculosis, which no other witness reported. Critics argue that the 1821 definition of cancer was not cellular, and no "tumour" was explicitly mentioned in the initial reports. Furthermore, Napoleon's self-diagnosis of cancer, influenced by his father's death, might have swayed the medical opinion, a diagnosis convenient for Hudson Lowe as it absolved the British and the St. Helena climate of any responsibility.
The Sensational Arsenic Poisoning Theory
Since the 1950s, an alternative theory has gained significant traction: that Napoleon was deliberately poisoned with arsenic. This hypothesis was first proposed by Sten Forshufvud, a Swedish dentist, after reading the memoirs of Louis Joseph Marchand, Napoleon's personal valet. Marchand described 28 of 31 symptoms that strikingly resembled arsenic poisoning.
Forshufvud obtained hair samples, purportedly belonging to Napoleon, and had them analysed. Professor Hamilton Smith of Glasgow University reportedly found high levels of arsenic, suggesting chronic intoxication since 1805. This theory posits that a long-term, low-dose poisoning, combined with the island's climate, weakened Napoleon, making him susceptible to fatal reactions from treatments like calomel administered in his final days.
However, this theory has faced considerable scientific and historical criticism. A 1998 study suggested gastric carcinoma and internal haemorrhage as the cause. Historians like Thierry Lentz cast doubt on the authenticity of the hair samples, the methodology, and the interpretation of results. Even the toxicologists involved, Drs Kintz and Fornix, clarified they spoke of "exposure" to arsenic, not "assassination."
Despite the criticisms, Dr. Pascal Kintz, President of the International Association of Forensic Toxicologists, conducted further analyses in 2003 and 2005. He reported massive concentrations of mineral arsenic (rat poison) in the medulla of Napoleon's hair, compatible with chronic intoxication. Kintz concluded, "We are unequivocally on the trail of criminal intoxication." His findings were supported by the International Museum of Surgical Sciences and the International College of Surgeons in Chicago.
Yet, a 2008 study by the Italian National Institute of Nuclear Physics (INFN) at the Universities of Milan and Pavia, analysing hair samples from various Napoleonic museums, found high arsenic levels but concluded they were comparable to those in Napoleon's youth and similar to levels found in contemporaries like Josephine de Beauharnais and the King of Rome. They suggested that the early 19th-century environment naturally led to ingesting quantities of arsenic now considered dangerous. From a purely medical standpoint, a chronic low-dose arsenic exposure is less likely to cause death than an acute, massive dose, and Napoleon's symptoms don't perfectly align with typical arsenic poisoning progression.
Other Theories
Other less prominent theories have also emerged. The Irish doctor Thomas Shortt diagnosed Napoleon with a chronic liver disease, leading to a theory of death from an amoebic dysentery complicated by a liver abscess. Separately, Danish physician Arne Soerensen suggested Napoleon died from urinary and kidney problems.
Comparing the Theories
The table below summarises the main theories surrounding Napoleon's death:
| Theory | Key Proponents/Evidence | Counter-Arguments/Issues |
|---|---|---|
| Stomach Cancer / Aggravated Ulcer | Official autopsy reports (Antommarchi, Henry), Napoleon's family history, weight loss. | Inconsistent autopsy reports, lack of clear 'tumour' description, Antommarchi's 1825 report disputed, no classic cancer death signs. |
| Arsenic Poisoning | Sten Forshufvud, Dr. Pascal Kintz (hair analysis showing high arsenic levels), matching symptoms in valet's memoirs. | Arsenic levels common in the era, inconsistent symptoms, doubts on hair sample authenticity, not typical acute poisoning, 'exposure' vs. 'assassination' debate. |
| Liver/Kidney Disease | Dr. Thomas Shortt (liver disease), Arne Soerensen (kidney issues). | Less detailed evidence provided, less widely accepted as the primary cause of death. |
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: What were Napoleon's last words?
A: Napoleon's reported last words, uttered around 7 AM on 5 May 1821, were "tête" (head) and "armée" (army). Earlier, he had spoken profoundly of rejoining his brave fallen companions in the Elysian Fields.
Q: Where did Napoleon die?
A: Napoleon Bonaparte died in exile at Longwood House on the remote island of St. Helena, located in the South Atlantic Ocean.
Q: What was the official cause of Napoleon's death?
A: The official cause of Napoleon's death, as concluded by the autopsy and Governor Hudson Lowe, was stomach cancer resulting from an aggravated ulcer. This diagnosis, however, remains highly debated.
Q: Was Napoleon poisoned?
A: The theory of Napoleon being poisoned with arsenic is a prominent and highly debated one. While some hair analyses have shown high levels of arsenic consistent with chronic exposure, other studies suggest these levels were common in the 19th century and do not definitively prove intentional poisoning. Historians and medical experts remain divided on this issue.
Q: How long was Napoleon exiled on St. Helena?
A: Napoleon was exiled on St. Helena for approximately five and a half years, arriving on 15 October 1815 and dying on 5 May 1821.
Conclusion
Napoleon Bonaparte's death on St. Helena remains one of history's most enduring enigmas. Whether he succumbed to a natural illness, such as stomach cancer or a severe ulcer, or was indeed the victim of insidious poisoning, the truth is likely to continue to fuel debate for generations to come. His final words, whether they were an actual utterance or simply the last murmurings of a dying man, offer a poignant glimpse into the mind of a leader whose life was defined by intellect and military prowess. His end, like his life, was anything but ordinary, leaving behind a legacy as complex and captivating as the man himself.
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