12/04/2018
The Elusive Definition of Youth
The term 'youth' often conjures a singular image, a monolithic bloc of individuals sharing common traits and experiences. However, a closer examination, particularly through the lens of sociology, reveals this perception to be a significant oversimplification. As Pierre Bourdieu argued, grouping diverse social universes under the single umbrella of 'youth' is a formidable abuse of language. The reality is far more nuanced, with vastly different experiences and social realities coexisting within what we broadly term 'youth'. Understanding these distinctions is crucial to dismantling harmful stereotypes and appreciating the multifaceted nature of this life stage.
Challenging Age-Based Stereotypes
Sociologists often highlight the arbitrary nature of age-based divisions. The concept of youth, like that of wealth, lacks a universally agreed-upon starting or ending point. This fluidity underscores that the boundaries between 'youth' and 'age' are not biological certainties but rather social constructs, often shaped by power dynamics and struggles. Historical examples, such as the Florentine elite in the 16th century or medieval societal structures as described by Georges Duby, illustrate how age categories have been manipulated to maintain social order and control. The ruling classes often strategically defined youth in ways that served their interests, sometimes emphasizing virility and action, other times promoting a state of irresponsibility to preserve inherited power and wealth for younger nobles.
Proverbs, stereotypes, and even philosophical discourse have contributed to these ideological divisions. Plato, for instance, assigned specific passions to different age groups, associating love with adolescence and ambition with maturity. This pattern of assigning distinct characteristics to age groups often involves a trade-off: granting certain attributes to the younger generation in exchange for their tacit acceptance of the older generation's dominance. This can be observed in the realm of sports, where the idealisation of 'good lads' in rugby – often portrayed as docile and devoted to the forward pack – can be seen as a way to channel youthful energy into a controlled, obedient form. The underlying principle, as Bourdieu suggests, is that age classifications, much like those based on sex or class, are mechanisms for imposing order and maintaining social hierarchies, ensuring everyone stays 'in their place'.
When discussing 'youth' and 'age', it's essential to recognise that these terms are relational. One is always the 'younger' or 'older' person in relation to someone else. This inherent relativity makes fixed age classifications inherently fluid and susceptible to manipulation. Ethnological studies, such as Nancy Munn's work on Australian societies, reveal how attempts to disrupt these age boundaries, like the use of rejuvenation magic by older women, are often viewed as diabolical because they threaten the established social order. This reinforces the idea that youth and old age are not simply biological states but are actively constructed within societal struggles.
The relationship between social age and biological age is complex. Consider the 'youths' entering elite educational institutions like the École Normale, ENA, or Polytechnique. Those closest to centres of power often exhibit more 'adult' or 'notable' characteristics, even at a young biological age. Conversely, markers of youthfulness, such as long hair or casual attire, tend to diminish as one ascends the hierarchy towards positions like CEOs. Each social field – be it fashion, art, or literature – has its own specific 'laws of ageing'. Understanding generational divisions within these fields requires an understanding of their unique dynamics, struggles, and the resulting categorisations, such as the 'nouvelle vague' or 'new philosophers'. The very act of treating 'youth' as a unified social group with shared interests, based solely on a biological age definition, is itself a form of manipulation. A more accurate approach would be to analyse the distinct experiences of different 'youths', differentiating, for instance, between young people already in the workforce and students of the same biological age.
The Two Youth's: A Tale of Two Realities
The concept of 'the two youths' highlights the stark differences in lived experiences among young people. On one hand, you have young people entering the economic world, facing its inherent constraints, with their experiences barely mitigated by family support. On the other, you have students enjoying a more 'playful' economy, supported by subsidies, reduced-price access to cultural events, and often, a degree of provisional irresponsibility. This latter group often dreams of prolonging this state of 'adolescence', a sentiment captured in literary figures who resist the transition to adulthood. The 'two youths' represent the extreme ends of a spectrum of possibilities available to young people, with numerous intermediate positions existing between these poles.
The Impact of Educational Expansion
The expansion and transformation of the school system have played a significant role in blurring the lines between previously distinct youth groups. As more young people from working-class backgrounds gained access to secondary education, they gained entry into a temporary status of 'adolescence' – a state of being 'half-child, half-adult'. This experience, even when superficial, can create a rupture with the taken-for-granted realities of their upbringing. For working-class youth, the desire to enter the workforce quickly is often driven by a need to gain adult status and the economic independence that comes with it. Having money is crucial for self-affirmation, socialising, and gaining recognition as a man. The prolonged schooling that delays this entry can lead to a sense of malaise.
The 'student' condition itself engenders specific behaviours and a detachment from immediate material concerns. Students are often excused from household chores in favour of their studies, a tacit agreement that further separates them from their families and their original social environment. This symbolic 'disengagement' from the practicalities of life is compounded by the school's role in manipulating aspirations. Schools are not merely places of learning; they are also institutions that confer titles, rights, and consequently, shape expectations. The current, more complex school system, with its convoluted pathways, often leads to aspirations that are misaligned with actual opportunities. In contrast, older systems had clearer trajectories, making it easier to understand one's prospects. The current system, with its poorly distinguished pathways, can trap students in 'sidings' or 'nets', leading to devalued qualifications and a disconnect between aspirations and reality.
The Disillusionment of Mass Schooling
The phenomena described above lead to a fundamental disappointment: the gap between the aspirations fostered by the educational system and the chances it actually guarantees. This disillusionment can result in collective refusal and a breakdown of the previous cycle where children of miners, for instance, unquestioningly followed their fathers into the mines. While this doesn't apply to all young people, particularly those from bourgeois backgrounds who may still adhere to traditional aspirations, it profoundly impacts working-class youth. They find themselves caught between a school system that disconnects them from the world of work without fully equipping them for it through qualifications.
Some young people may feel alienated by the school system yet still participate in a shared 'student sub-culture'. This can lead to a disconnect from their families, who may not understand their experiences or aspirations. The feeling of disorientation and despair regarding future work prospects can be profound. Furthermore, the realisation, even through failure, that the school system contributes to the reproduction of privilege is a significant factor. Bourdieu argued that for working-class families to understand the school as a mechanism for reproducing privilege, they had to first experience the system directly. Previously, they might have believed in the school's liberating potential, or simply not considered it, as their interaction was limited to primary education.
Generational Conflicts and Shifting Aspirations
The perceived 'depoliticisation' among some youth can be explained by the nature of their revolt. This is not a politicisation in the conventional sense, as understood by political apparatuses. Instead, it's a broader, more diffuse questioning of work, school, and the system as a whole. This can manifest as a sense of unease, a form of 'spontaneous leftism' that challenges the established order. This widespread malaise, while not always articulated in a readily identifiable political discourse, possesses a potent revolutionary force capable of transcending traditional political structures.
Generational conflicts are also fuelled by differing sets of aspirations shaped by distinct historical periods and access to resources. What was once an extraordinary privilege for one generation – such as owning a car – can become commonplace for the next. This generational gap in aspirations can lead to friction, particularly in declining social classes where individuals may have even less than their parents did at the same age, while those privileges have become widely accessible. It is not surprising, therefore, that 'anti-youth' sentiment is often found among declining social classes and older individuals who may perceive youth as a threat to their established order. While not all older people are anti-youth, old age itself can represent a social decline and a loss of social power, aligning older individuals with the concerns of declining classes.
The school system can exacerbate intergenerational conflict by placing individuals with vastly different educational backgrounds into similar social positions. For instance, in public sector roles, younger, highly qualified graduates might work alongside older individuals who started with fewer qualifications but gained experience and seniority over time. This can lead to competition based not on inherent ability but on differing relationships with the educational system. Young graduates may cite their formal qualifications, while older workers emphasise their experience. This dynamic can play out in professional settings, unions, and even within families, where differing educational experiences create divergent worldviews and expectations.
The Structural Devaluation of Generations
A key factor contributing to generational discontent is the structural devaluation of qualifications. Each successive generation, despite often being more qualified than the last, tends to achieve less with their qualifications. This is partly due to the increasing accessibility of education, which, by its very nature, reduces the scarcity and thus the value of its credentials. Women, often facing discrimination, must achieve higher levels of qualification to attain the same positions as men, highlighting this trend. This 'qualification inflation' means that, irrespective of class differences, younger generations often have to work harder and wait longer to achieve the same status and opportunities that were more readily available to previous generations. This can lead to a shared sense of disillusionment across an entire generation.
Within the dominant classes, the extended period required for the transmission of wealth and status can also lead to frustration among the 'juniors'. This delay in succession contributes to the contestation observed in various professions, where younger individuals feel they are being held back. The dynamic is one of mutual interest: older generations have an interest in keeping younger generations in a state of 'youth', while younger generations aim to push the older ones into obsolescence. Periods of intense generational conflict occur when the trajectories of the young and old collide, and when the younger generation aspires to succession 'too soon'. These conflicts are often managed when older generations control the pace of career progression and the timing of promotions. However, when this 'sense of limits' erodes, conflicts over age boundaries and the transmission of power and privilege intensify.
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